Modernism And Modernisation In Architecture And Culture Philosophy Essay

Modernism And Modernisation In Architecture And Culture Philosophy Essay Discuss the various competing notions of Modernity, Modernism and Modernisation in architecture and culture in the writings of Robert Venturi/Denise Scott Brown using the writings of Michel Foucault and Jà ¼rgen Habermas to support your discussion. Introduction To begin this essay concerned with the issues of Modernity, Modernism and Modernisation, I think it is a necessity to first define the term Modern, as it links all three terms. Modern, according to Jà ¼rgen Habermas, was first used in late fifth century in order to distinguish the Christian present, from the pagan and Roman past. He argues that Modern can be used whenever the awareness of a new era developed in Europe through a change in the relationship to classical antiquity. For us people today, Habermas thinks modern begins with the Renaissance, however people considered themselves as modern in the age of Charlemagne in the twelfth century and in the Enlightenment. (Habermas, 1996). Through this Habermas describes the term modern as one, which can be used widely and has no definitive time period, as the concept behind it is based upon ones (or an eras) perception. Figure Habermas explanation of modern is supported by Vincent Scully, as he explains that Le Corbusiers, a pioneer of Modern architecture, teacher was the Greek temple (Figure 1), consisting of an isolated body, white and free in the landscape, its rigour clear in the sun. Le Corbusier during his early polemics would have his buildings just as the temple, as time went on his architecture began to progressively more and more incorporate the Greek Temples sculptural and heroic character. (Venturi, 1977) Scullys interpretation on the work of Le Corbusier directly, as Corbusier created a new direct relationship with the classical antiquity of Greek Temples. Michel Foucault, according to Barry Smart, takes a slightly different perspective to Habermas and Scullys interpretations of the term modern, he interprets modern as a placeholder when a more definite description is not known. He goes on to explain that the modern (or present) cannot recognise itself as a period and that if you can outline the characteristics that make up a period is to already be beyond it and has become the past. (Smart, 1994). Foucault an interesting insight into the modern, as simply a title giving to that which is unclassifiable , the present, and that once you can classify a time period then it is no longer modern and is the past. Modernity 1.1 Habermas argues that Modernity is an expression that represents the consciousness of an era that relates back to the past of classical antiquity in order understand itself as the movement from the old to the new. What Habermas called the Unfinished Project aims at a distinguishable reconnection of modern culture with an everyday sphere of the theory production process, which is dependent on living heritage. However, the aim of modernity can only be achieved if the process of social modernisation can be transformed into other non-capitalist directions, if the state of the current world is capable of developing institutions of its own way currently withdrawn by the self-ruling system dynamics of the economic and administrative systems. (Habermas, 1994) Venturi explains that Louis Khans or orthodox modern architects desire for simplicity, is satisfactory, when it is made valid through inner complexity. He goes to mention that the Doric Temples (Figure 2) simplicity to the eye is achieved through famous subtleties and precision of its distorted geometry and the contradictions and tensions inherent in its order, so it achieves apparent simplicity through real complexity. (Venturi, 1977). Through this Venturis point links directly to Habermas notion of modernity, as he is relating the new Modern architecture desire for simplicity to the simplicity achieved in the old architecture of the Doric Temple, thereby highlighting a transition from the old to new. Figure Michel Foucault takes a different approach from Habermas as he denotes Modernity as something which is characterised by a combination of power/knowledge relations around the subject of life, a life that is now possible to master through science. He goes on to argue that the human races problem does not only consist of a fear of destruction through chemical or atomic pollution, animal species extinction or depletion of natural resources; the idea that any malicious power could take over technologies for evil purposes, is only a false illusion to hide a genuine metaphysical anxiety that corresponds with the mastery of life. Through this Foucault states that this mastery of life, through science, transforms the living, crushing it. As opposed to turning it into a knowledge base upon which could support us, thus making the living being more and more artificial. (Jose, 1998) Habermas produces a definition of Modernity, which takes a more of social/economical perspective, with his relation between social modernization and capitalism and between the worlds institutions and autonomous economic and administrative systems. On the other hand Foucault takes an approach in which he addresses how important the scientific aspect of modernity is and how it has affected out outlook on life as a whole. Figure According to Habermas, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (Figure 3) was the first philosopher to develop a clear understanding of modernity. With the philosophers that came before him, Hegel located the core of modernity in the principle of subjectivity, which had previously been discussed by Kant, who saw subjectivity as the foundation of science, morality and art fields. Hegel argued that since modernity was based on subjectivity and the power of critical reflection, only philosophical reason could achieve the hoped-for reconciliation and overcome the doubt of modern subjectivity. This interpretation lead to the articulation of Hegels notion of absolute spirit, which is the consuming activity of self-discovery, the unconditionally self-productive self-relation, interceding subjectivity and objectivity, nature and spirit, finitude and infinity. (Habermas, 1996, Pg. 6) Modernity and the Enlightenment David Harvey describes Enlightenment thought as that which embraced the idea of progression and actively wanted that break with history and tradition which modernity adopts. It was a non-religious movement that sought the removal of obscurity and sacredness of knowledge and social organisation in order to free human beings from their chains. (Harvey, 1989). The project of modernity, as referred to by Habermas, came into focus during eighteenth century. This developed an intellectual effort by Enlightenment thinkers to advance in objective science, universal ethics and law, and autonomous art according to their inner logic. The idea behind this was to may use of the knowledge gained by many people working freely and creatively in pursuit of human emancipation and the enrichment of daily life. Harvey denotes Enlightenment thought as a thought process which strives to remove the unease about pursuing knowledge and social organisation so that we can remove the chains in our minds, which prevents us from gaining more knowledge. This links into Habermas, where he touches upon a characteristic of Enlightenment thinking, which is to advance and enrich daily life through the gain of more knowledge. According to Habermas, through opposing the classical and the romantic to each other, modernity wished to create its own past in an idealised vision of the Middle Ages. During the nineteenth century the Romanticism produced a radicalised realisation of modernity that detached itself from all previous historical connections and understood itself solely in abstract opposition to tradition and history as a whole. (Habermas, 1996) I do not agree with this statement as Habermas contradicts himself as he previously denoted modernity as an expression that represents the consciousness of an era that refers back to the past of classical antiquity precisely in order to comprehend itself as the result of a transition from the old to the new. (Habermas,1996, Pg. 39) With reference to this notion, it would impossible for a type of modernity to develop that not have historical connections and abstractly opposed tradition and history entirely. Modernity as an avant-garde The mentality of aesthetic modernity began to form with Charles Pierre Baudelaire and with his theory of art, which had been influenced by Edgar Allan Poe. This unfolded in the avant-garde artistic movements and then achieved its peak with surrealism and the Dadaists of the Cafà © Voltaire. This mentality is characterised by a set of attitudes, which formed around a new transformed consciousness of time, which expresses itself in the spatial metaphor of the avant-garde. This avant-garde explores the unknown, thereby exposing itself to the risk of sudden and shocking encounters, conquering an undetermined future and must find a path for itself in previously unknown domains. (Habermas, 1996) Modernism Modernisation Conclusion Total Word Count:

Introduction/Conclusion on Drug Abuse

Robert Cain Cocaine, Marijuana, Meet, Crack Cocaine, Heroin, and Prescription Pills are all illegal drugs. All of these types of drugs can be found on any corner of America these days. It seems that a lot of Americans are doing them. Many Americans are tempted by the excitement or possibly the escape these drugs seem to offer. Learning about the facts of these drugs can help you see the potential risk of chasing the excitement and escape. No one knows exactly why so many Americans are using drugs.Some use drugs as a way to escape reality and some may use them just to fit in. While others use them to be rebellious and get attention. Many people use drugs because they feel It will help them cope with whatever feelings they are trying to mask. The sad truth Is after using the drugs many of the users have a feeling of regret and feel worse than they did to begin with. Drugs can ruin every aspect of a person's life. That Is why It Is very Important to spread the word of how damaging drugs can be. In conclusion with drug use in America.No matter what type of drug you try you are that much closer to becoming addicted to it. All it takes is one time try it and like it. Drugs can ruin everything you have worked so hard for. Help me spread the word on how not to become a drug user. COW use drugs as a way to escape reality and some may use them Just to fit in. While they feel it will help them cope with whatever feelings they are trying to mask. The sad truth is after using the drugs many of the users have a feeling of regret and feel is why it is very important to spread the word of how damaging drugs can be.

Imagery in James Joyce Araby - 784 Words

In Araby by James Joyce, the narrator uses vivid imagery in order to express feelings and situations. The story evolves around a boys adoration of a girl he refers to as Mangans sister and his promise to her that he shall buy her a present if he goes to the Araby bazaar. Joyce uses visual images of darkness and light as well as the exotic in order to suggest how the boy narrator attempts to achieve the inaccessible. Accordingly, Joyce is expressing the theme of the boys exaggerated desire through the images which are exotic. The theme of Araby is a boys desire to what he cannot achieve. Joyce uses visual imagery from the world of Christianity, images of light and darkness and auditory imagery in order to enhance the meaning of†¦show more content†¦You can hear the force and fury of the storm, and this makes the emotions the boy is feeling seem even more intense. The boys dream ends with him realizing that his love exists only in his mind. 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Dickerson v. United States Case, Arguments, Impact

In Dickerson v. United States (2000), the Supreme Court ruled that Congress could not use legislation to supersede Supreme Court decisions on constitutional rules. The Court reaffirmed the ruling of Miranda v. Arizona (1966) as the primary guideline for the admissibility of statements made during custodial interrogation. Fast Facts: Dickerson v. United States Case Argued: April 19, 2000Decision Issued:  June 26, 2000Petitioner: Charles DickersonRespondent:   United StatesKey Questions: Can Congress overrule Miranda v. Arizona?Majority Decision: Justices Rehnquist, Stevens, O’Connor, Kennedy, Souter, Ginsberg, and BreyerDissenting: Justices Scalia and ThomasRuling: Congress does not have the legislative power to supersede Miranda v. Arizona and its warnings with regard to admissibility of statements made during custodial interrogation.   Facts of the Case Charles Dickerson was indicted for a list of charges associated with bank robbery. At trial, his attorney argued that the statement he made to officers in an FBI field office was inadmissible in court under Miranda v. Arizona. Dickerson claimed that he had not received Miranda warnings before FBI interrogation. The FBI agents and local officers who had been present at the interrogation said that he had received the warnings. The dispute rose to the District Court, then to the U.S. Court of Appeals. The U.S. Court of Appeals found Dickerson had not received Miranda warnings, but that they were not necessary in his particular case. They referenced Section 3501 of Title 18 of the U.S. Code, which Congress had passed two years after Miranda v. Arizona in 1968. This legislation required that statements be made voluntarily in order for them to be used in a court of law, but did not require that Miranda warnings be read. According to the Court of Appeals, Dickerson’s statement was voluntary, and thus should not be suppressed. The Court of Appeals also found that, because Miranda was not a question of constitutionality, Congress had the power to decide what types of warnings were required to make a statement admissible. The Supreme Court took on the case through a writ of certiorari. Constitutional Issues Can Congress create a new statute that (1) overrules Miranda v. Arizona and (2) establishes different guidelines for the admissibility of statements made during interrogation? Was the Miranda v. Arizona ruling based on a constitutional question? The case asked the Court to reevaluate its role in overseeing questions of admissibility. Such questions typically fall to Congress, but Congress may not â€Å"legislatively supersede† Supreme Court decisions when those decisions analyze a constitutional rule. The Arguments The U.S. government argued that Dickerson was made aware of his Miranda rights before the interrogation at the FBI field office, despite the fact that these warnings were not necessary. Like the Court of Appeals, they referenced section 3501 of U.S.C. Title 18 to argue that a confession only has to be voluntary to be admissible in court, and that the confessor does not need to be notified of his Fifth Amendment rights prior to interrogation. They pointed out that the reading of the Miranda rights is only one of the factors, under section 3501, that points to the voluntariness of the confessors statement. Additionally, attorneys on behalf of the U.S. government argued that Congress, not the Supreme Court, has the ultimate say on the rules that govern admissibility. Dickerson’s attorney argued that the FBI agents and local law enforcement violated Dickerson’s right against self-incrimination when they failed to notify him of his Miranda rights (per Miranda v. Arizona). The intent of the courts decision in Miranda v. Arizona was to protect citizens from situations that increased the likelihood of false confessions. According to Dickersons attorney, Dickerson should have been notified of his rights to alleviate the pressure of interrogation, regardless of whether his ultimate statement to officers was voluntary or not. Majority Opinion Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist delivered the 7-2 decision. In the decision, the Court found that Miranda v. Arizona was based on a constitutional question, meaning that the Supreme Court had the final say over its interpretation, and Congress did not have the right to establish different guidelines for the admissibility of evidence. The majority looked to the text of the Miranda decision. In Miranda, the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, aimed to give â€Å"concrete constitutional guidelines for law enforcement† and found that unwarned confessions were taken from individuals under â€Å"unconstitutional standards.† Dickerson v. United States also asked the Court to rule on the constitutionality of their original ruling in Miranda v. Arizona. In the majority opinion, the Justices chose not to overrule Miranda for a few reasons. First, the court applied stare decisis (a Latin term meaning to stand by things decided†), which asks the court to refer to past rulings in order to rule on a current case. Under stare decisis, overturning past decisions requires special justification. In this instance, the Court could not find special justification to overturn the Miranda v. Arizona, which by 2000 had become an important part of police practice and the wider national culture.  Unlike some constitutional rules, the Court argued, the core of Miranda rights had been able to withstand challenges and exceptions. The majority explained: â€Å"If anything, our subsequent cases have reduced the impact of the  Miranda  rule on legitimate law enforcement while reaffirming the decision’s core ruling that unwarned statements may not be used as evidence in the prosecution’s case in chief.† Dissenting Opinion Justice Antonin Scalia dissented, joined by Justice Clarence Thomas. According to Scalia, the majority opinion was an act of â€Å"judicial arrogance.† Miranda v. Arizona only served to protect individuals from â€Å"foolish (rather than compelled) confessions.† In the dissent, Justice Scalia noted that he was â€Å"not persuaded† by the majority’s claim that Miranda was better than Congress’ alternative, and suggested that the majority’s attempt to ground its decision in stare decisis was useless. Justice Scalia wrote: â€Å"[†¦] what today’s decision will stand for, whether the Justices can bring themselves to say it or not, is the power of the Supreme Court to write a prophylactic, extraconstitutional Constitution, binding on Congress and the States.† The Impact In Dickerson v. United States, the Supreme Court asserted its authority over constitutional questions, reaffirming the role of Miranda v. Arizona in police practice. Through Dickerson, the Supreme Court emphasized the role of Miranda warnings in proactively protecting rights. The Court maintained that the totality of the circumstances approach, which Congress sought to implement, risked individual protections. Sources Dickerson v. United States, 530 U.S. 428 (2000)Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966)